Restoring the Caledonian Forest

The Caledonian Forest covered much of Scotland, and according to the trees for life charity takes its name from the Romans, who called Scotland “Caledonia”, meaning “wooded heights”. During the last decade or so when out hill walking I’ve often pondered how different the landscape would have looked at the time of the Romans and how devoid of biodiversity the majority of Scotland’s lower level valleys and glens currently are without the great forest of Caledonia. I want to consider here current efforts to regenerate wooded areas of the country, which in large part is due to charity work of Trees for Life Organisation supported by other charities such as The Scottish Wildlife Trust. With some proposals of restoration there are potential conflicts with human interests. However I want to consider the ecological benefits of restoring areas of Caledonian forest, as well as the potential social and financial benefits of having a thriving varied National ecosystem. There is a need for setting out a socialist perspective which will continue to be necessary in informing debate, resolving conflicts of interest and making future visions of a regenerated forest a reality including the reintroduction of lost native species.

Last year (2008) I was walking through Glen Affric with my mother to the remote wind and solar powered hostel which sits seven hours walk from the nearest public car access point and provides an ideal base for climbing some remote and stunning hills. A superb walk though fine valley country surrounded by stunning hills. On our way we couldn’t help but notice large sections of the valleys fenced off within which there were numerous Birch, Rowan, Pine, Oak, fern, lichens, flowers flourishing within a comparatively scarred landscape barren of even healthy heather growth because of overgrazing.

Grand looking Caledonian Pine formed the main species of Caledonian Forest

On arrival at the Hostel we encountered a team of tree planters from the charity Trees for Life, who was responsible for these regenerated areas. Each morning for a week they had been out planting, equipped with overalls, shovels seedlings and an enviable sense of dedication in all weathers, sun or rain. This was part of a work week organised by the Charity, who also work in partnership with government agencies  such as Forestry Commission Scotland, other charities such as RSPB, and  landowners (needless to say, I have reservations about small numbers of people holding large tracts of Scottish land in private ownership, but we’ll return to that later).

Map showing former and present areas of Caledonian Forest. Area of regeneration West of Inverness: Source Trees for Life

The work these irrepressible people were doing was, as the charity states, part of a three fold strategy for the return of the forest. First is to fence out grazing animals on the existing periphery of woodland, so things can grow naturally without over grazing. Secondly the planting of native trees using seeds from neighbouring native forest remnants, this maintains the genetic variation of the forest and is planted randomly to mirror natural growth. Thirdly non-native tree removal in the vicinity removes a barrier to natural regeneration. These three strategies of trees for life have been working since 1989 in Dundreggan, Glen Affric and Achnashellach to name but a few sites. This area contains almost no human inhabitation or road system.

A longer term aim of Trees for Life is to create sustainable islands of forest which can regenerate naturally in these areas without the need for further fencing. Eventual removing of fencing is a goal, provided there is not undue grazing pressure. During the season of 2008/9 Mick Drury states that Trees for Life aim to have planted 25,000 trees as a contribution to the United Nations global Environment Programme of one Billion Trees.

Such habitat revival work is a joy to watch when walking in the valleys and hills. Observing an area of young woodland amongst the majestic hills is the perfect antidote to a busy week at work, traffic jams and paying bills. To sight Red Kite hunting over a wood or a Roe Deer at the side of a field can quite easily make my day a pleasure. These things are a potent reminder too of our brief existence in the world and stimulate me all the more to go and enjoy the wild places all the more.

There are significant benefits of having a thriving mixed wood Caledonian forest. Not least the sheer level of personal enjoyment received when visiting ecologically diverse and rich places which can have substantially beneficial implications for the tourist industry. There is the additional blessing that the forest can support a wider variety of native wildlife.

Fencing allows young tree & heather growth free from over grazing

Examples are endless from frogs, insects, birds and mammals. Just the other day I stopped several times on a low level hill path in a lightly wooded area where there were huge prehistoric looking dragonflies displaying vigorous colours of blue, yellow and orange. It is often a highlight of a day to spot one of these creatures in a wooded area. Forest regeneration also supports our endangered species, like The Scottish Wildcat. According to the Wildcat Association there are only four hundred pure Scottish Wildcats left. They are on the brink of extinction through loss of forest habitat and interbreeding with their domestic cousins.

With the potential for an established long term presence for the Caledonian Forest attention will sooner or later turn to how it can support the reintroduction of native mammals as a means or preventing overgrazing, allowing limited natural regeneration and returning the countryside to a largely naturally sustaining condition. I believe it is time for a wider discussion on the potential for mammal reintroductions as a means of supporting forest regeneration.

There is a wide variety of opinion on reintroductions some in support, others fearful, and political opinion often caving into the arguments of small interest groups and failing to think creatively with regard to potential legislative requirements of reintroduction efforts.

Trees for Life recently participated in a reintroduction conference. The importance of this is allowing animals to maintain the ecosystem on their own, for example as Puplett from Trees for Life states mammal reintroductions could naturally regulate herbivore numbers, promote forest diversity and increase wetland areas. In some cases there would be benefits to tourism through ecotourism and a sense of pride and source of enjoyment for the rest of us having a complete sustainable ecosystem. There are various keystone species which once populated our countryside and are now gone, these include lynx, wild boar, and wolf.

Wetland habitats are created by Beavers, and provide a home for Frogs

There have recently been successful re-introductions of, for example, osprey, red kite and sea eagle. The introduction of European beaver has taken place only this June in Argyll with seventeen specimens from Norway. This has been the work largely of The Scottish Wildlife Trust.

In 2005 the then Labour dominated Scottish Executive voted to turn down the reintroduction license for the European beaver after consultation with local landowners. This was overturned by a subsequent administration but it highlights a continuing need for fresh political input and continued public education in order to continue successful animal reintroduction. I would argue that socialists should show broad support for reintroduction programmes in the future, taking on board lessons from recent progress and stating the potential benefits of a varied and self sustaining eco system.

A favourite potential mammal for re-introduction is wild boar. There is a population of boar roaming enclosures in Alladale and these could provide the basis for a full reintroduction. Boar forage on the forest floor for fungi and roots, providing a seed bed for trees. Despite their fearsome reputation boar will avoid people, as recent boar escapes in England have shown. They have been known in rare cases to attack dogs and people, and there are concerns about boar feeding on cereal crops.

Dragon Flies are a spectacular fan of wet woodland and food for birds

In many European countries boar and people live side by side, lessons there could be learned for Scotland. However, without natural predators, regulation of Boar numbers would be necessary, which could provide an income for farmers.

Other until recently native species includes the wolf and the European lynx. Ecologically the wolf plays a crucial role in balancing the ecosystem. The function of the wolf would be in controlling red deer numbers, thus limiting the damage to woodland. Wolves prevent deer feeding in any one area too long, their impact is large despite the fact ninety percent of their hunting attempts are unsuccessful.

There are many who believe that wolf introduction would be a bad thing. Their view reflects a commonly held misunderstanding that wolves are harmful to humans, which is almost entirely not the case. A diverse forest habitat cannot sustain itself naturally without the need to contain overgrazing, either through culling or natural predation. The real point of conflict with wolves would come with predation on livestock and dogs and the question of whether farming could coexist with them. Lessons here should be learned from European neighbours with wolf populations. In Sweden farmers are actually paid for having predators on their land. This seems to be well embraced by the community. Other options include such as that in Norway where compensation for losses is available, or a greater use of sheep dogs. Some argue the public is not yet ready to accept a full wolf reintroduction but rather aim for a date of 2043, three hundred years after the last native Scottish wolf was shot.

Mature Birch and Scots Pine Forest displaying autumn colour in Glen Affric

The lynx is another controversial candidate for reintroduction. However the lynx is no harm to humans whatsoever, it is a highly reclusive animal which remains in the wooded areas. The threat of lynx to livestock is therefore limited as most livestock graze in open areas. Some kind of compensation scheme may be useful however, particularly for farms adjacent to wooded areas. The lynx is a predator of mainly roe deer, rabbit and hare so thus limits herbivore damage to forest in the same way as wolves. The lynx may provide the perfect alternative for introduction to those for whom the wolf is presently unacceptable. Recent study has shown that Scotland could already support a lynx population as they are equally comfortable in native or commercial pine forestry. Indeed where the lynx has been reintroduced in Germany it has greatly improved the local tourist industry and the face of the lynx adorns much German tourist literature.

There are other species for consideration in future introductions, but at the present time current habitat could only reasonably support the species mentioned. What I have done here is try to convey my enthusiasm for some of our wild Scottish landscapes. I hope these wonderful and eternally inspiring places can be restored.

With due care and diligence negative effects on farming can be outweighed through proper planning and compensation. Provided there is adequate initial forest habitat conflict with human commercial interests is going to be greatly reduced. So for now I will continue to trek through the hills of Scotland gradually watching news islands of woodland mature and enjoying the increased variety of plant and animal life that this brings with it. The benefits of forest restoration to the land, as well as to us in terms of revenue from eco tourism should be obvious.

Red Deer Stag in spring roaming an overgrazed landscape in Glen Affric

In time I hope some more of our native mammal species can be introduced, and I have shown that such aspirations are both possible and necessary. The success of the Beaver trial so far points out what can be achieved, and a great deal of credit is due to the work of the Scottish Wildlife Trust in this instance. Lessons should be learned. Primarily political pressure and community education needs to be maintained in order for progress to be made. In a decades time native forest will again cover sizeable tracts of Scottish glens. Perhaps then we will be living side by side with not only osprey, red kite, sea eagle, but a larger diversity of mammals that enable increasing areas of Caledonian forest to naturally sustain itself.

Benefits of public control in the environment

In order for this vision to become a reality there needs to be increased public ownership and management of Scottish land. Since vast tracts of Scotland were cleared of people during the brutal Highland clearances from 1700s-1900 and handed to a few wealthy landowners the Great Glens have been given over to sheep, deer and commercial forestry and stripped it bare of natural vegetation. Public ownership of the land would allow opportunity to make more constructive use of the countryside.

Currently vast areas of Scottish land are owned by a tiny handful of super rich millionaires and billionaires. Large estates initially made popular in the Victorian era for aristocratic spending of large sums of money shooting animals bred for sport. The practice continues today, with deer numbers soaring for the purpose of hunting, ensuring the Glens remain stripped bare of vegetation. Heather is also burnt yearly to keep young shoots down for certain game birds, and wildlife crime is at an all time high as raptors such as the Red Kite are poisoned on the Black Isle - wrongly accused of taking game birds.

The majority of trees which grow in the countryside are foreign commercial pines, destined for chopping and rob much of the soil of its natural nutrients whilst returning precious little at the end of their commercially viable life cycles. The countryside would benefit greatly from having large natural forested islands alongside the monotonous rows of commercial pine.

Recent human activities have left much of the Scottish countryside devoid of much of its original variety and beauty. Public ownership of the land would allow for a coordinated effort to undo much of the damage of recent century’s ecological destruction and greed. Much work by charities such as Trees for Life would benefit from being part of a larger National strategy. Natural sustainable forest and open hillside could exist alongside more carefully managed farming, forest and energy interests.

With a publicly funded Ranger and National Park service native forest could be planted at an accelerated rate, and the reintroduction of lost mammal species brought to encourage sustainability. A public Ranger service would act as an education service and rural police force. This would pay for itself in a short space of time with the increase in eco tourism. Community involvement and rights of access should work hand in hand with these goals and act as an instrument of education in Scottish natural history. The interests of the majority of Scots to enjoy their countryside are better served in public control. Public ownership of the land gives an opportunity to return much of that land to its original sustainable state, whilst balancing the needs of commercial forestry, farming, and (more controversially) hunting in relation to the primary need of restoring the wooded heights.  

Steve Mowat